Oceania

Oceania - Introduction

Archeological records show evidence of a migration known as “Out of Taiwan” having occurred between 3000 and 1000 BC. Polynesian people, a subset of the Austronesian people, began migrating from Taiwan into Southwest Asia, Indonesia, East Malaysia, and the Philippines. By 1400 BC, the islands of Melanesia had been settled and within four centuries the distant islands of Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa had been reached and established as thriving communities. The entire Pacific Ocean lay open for colonization by the Polynesian people and they managed to reach the limit when they arrived on Rapa Nui, Easter Island, by the 13th century. Polynesian ability to migrate and settle the Pacific islands was not based on a stroke of good luck. Their vessels and navigational equipment must have been as exceptional as their knowledge and skills in being able to sail the vast Pacific Ocean.

Emu - Australia

England used its American holdings as penal colonies; the state of Georgia was founded as such. Following the Revolutionary War, England had to find new horizons to set up its penal institutions. Australia suited those needs and inmates began arriving at Norfolk Island, Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania.

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Dromaius novaehollandiae - The emu can grow to heights of 2 meters. It is the largest bird in Australia and the second largest in the world; the ostrich is the largest. Females initiate courtship and once a bond has been established, the breeding pair will remain together for about five months. It is the male who constructs the nest and incubates the eggs; he will not eat or drink for almost eight weeks. The female will continue to add one egg to the nest every two or three days until the total count reaches approximately 11 eggs.

Kangaroo - Australia

Kangaroos belong to the Macropodidae family of animals and are endemic to Australia; one genus, the tree kangaroo, is found in Papua New Guinea. The name Macropodidae is in reference to the kangaroo’s large hind foot. The powerful hind quarters and long tail of a kangaroo provide it with the means to reach speeds of 70 km/h in quick bursts or to cruise along at 40 km/h for extended distances. The kangaroo is the largest animal dependent on hopping as a means of locomotion.

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The settlement of Australia occurred 40,000 to 70,000 years ago. The first arrivals may have used a combination of land and sea routes when making their way to Australia. Those arriving by sea probably came from Timor and those arriving by land came from New Guinea; Australia and New Guinea were once part of a larger continent called Sahul. The aboriginal people of Australia had a multi-generational passage through Asia during their migration from Africa, but they are not closely related to Asians.

Salak Palm - Brunei

Brunei, one of the world’s smallest nations, once held claim over an area extending from Northern Borneo to the southern islands of the Philippines. Internal strife and European intervention weakened the empire. When independence from Great Britain was achieved in 1984, only two small enclaves in Northern Borneo remained.

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Salacca zalacca - The fruit of the salak palm grows in tightly packed clusters at the base of the plant and is known as snake fruit because of the scaly rind. The covering peels away to reveal an inner pulp consisting of three lobes resembling the shape of garlic cloves with a texture similar to the pulp of an apple, but having a sweet acidic taste. The salak palm is indigenous to Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. The tree’s long petioles, the stalks holding the leaves to the stems, are strong and flexible enough to be fashioned into fishing rods.

Blue-necked Water Snake - Brunei

Macrophistodon rhodomelas - The blue-necked water snake is semi-aquatic and found along the streams and swampy areas of the lowland rainforests throughout Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore. It relies heavily on a diet of small fish, frogs, and toads. It grows to lengths of 60 to 85 centimeters and is non-venomous. The blue-necked water snake is passive. When provoked the snake will rear up, flatten its neck, assume a striking position, but will rarely deliver a bite. 

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The Bruneian Empire reigned from the 7th century until 1888. It was a thalassocratic empire, a term describing a state deriving power through its control of the sea. The Sultanate of Brunei reached its apex between the 15th and 17th century. It controlled the coastal region of a wide territory, but was unable to extend their jurisdiction beyond the coastal areas. The Bidayuh, the indigenous people of Borneo’s interior, remained free from Brunei’s influence and were regarded as a constant threat.

Convict Tang - Fiji

There are four countries in Oceania: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, and Tuvalu incorporating the British Union Jack within the design of their own flag. This reflects the widespread historical influence of the British Empire throughout the Pacific region. This influence is spread from Australia to the state of Hawaii and British Columbia.

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Acanthurus triostegus - The manini is also known as the convict tang because of its striped design. Tangs typically sport bright colors and have small downward angled mouths with a single row of teeth, an ideal feature for scraping the algae off coral reefs, their primary habitat. As an algae feeder, the manini provides an important service to the coral reefs by keeping the fast growing algae from smothering the slow growing corals. As juveniles, they tend to travel in medium sized schools, but become solitary as adults.

Balaka Palm - Fiji

Balaka seemanii - The balaka palm, also known as the spear palm, is endemic to Vanua Levu and Taveuni islands. This delicate palm thrives in the understory layers of rainforest settings at elevations of 140 meters and up. The palm grows to a height of about 7 meters; the slender trunk rarely exceeds 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter. Warfare between the various Fijian tribes was common and the trunk of the balaka palm was the primary source used for making spears.

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Fiji consists of two groups of ethnic peoples; the Melanesians and Indo-Fijians; about 54% and 38% respectively. The colonial domination of Fiji by Great Britain culminated in the rapid growth of the sugar cane industry and resulted in a massive labor shortage. The British imported additional laborers to work the plantations from India. The majority of these indentured laborers, also know as “Girmit,” integrated themselves into Fiji at the end of their work contract to become a vital part of Fijian society.

New Caledonia Giant Gecko - New Caledonia

In 1900, archaeologists investigated a site on Papua New Guinea containing ancient pottery. In 1917, another site, located on New Caledonia, Lapita, revealed a similar style of pottery. It was also found in Tonga, almost 5,000 kilometers away. The initial human migration into the Pacific region was rapid and widespread.

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Rhacodactylus leachianus - The New Caledonia giant gecko, with a  length of 36 centimeters, is the largest gecko in the world. The robust body and stumpy tail are odd features for an animal leading an arboreal life; it does have sharp claws for grip and a grasping pad on the underside of the tail. The gecko spends the day sheltering in tree holes or crevasses and emerges at night to forage in the canopy for insects, spiders, frogs, and small birds. Females produce two eggs per cycle and are able to securely “glue” them to the tree.

Breadfruit - Tahiti

In 1788, Pomare I, a Tahitian chief, began unifying the nearby islands into the Kingdom of Tahiti. It was one of several independent entities in Oceania. Tahiti became a French protectorate in 1842 and was allowed to retain a degree of self-government, but in 1880, Tahiti was annexed as a French colony. 

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Artocarpus altilis - Breadfruit has its origins in the Melanesian region of Oceania and was carried further east by the Polynesian people as they migrated from island to island. The plant, when cooked, has a texture similar to bread. Having high levels of starch, the fruit has the taste of potatoes. The tree is fast growing and provides a nutritious fruit. Cultivated trees require minimal labor, fertilizer or pesticides in bringing forth a bountiful harvest; a mature tree can supply 250 fruits annually and has a life expectancy of almost 50 years.

Medinilla Racemosa - Wallis And Futuna

Three main islands, Alo, Sigave, and Uvea, make up the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. The islands were independent kingdoms ruled by minor kings or queens. French missionaries began arriving on the islands in 1837. By 1888, the three kingdoms had signed treaties with France and were reduced to protectorates.

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Medinilla racemosa - The Medinilla genus has about 190 species of flowering plants distributed from Africa, across Southern Asia, and into the Pacific Ocean. They are either in shrub or liana form. Medinilla racemosa grows in the dense rainforest as a fleshy vine with a smooth straw-colored bark. Lianas are vines rooted in the ground near trees and use them as support columns for reaching into the canopy. Lianas strengthen trees by “latching” them together, but they also compete against the trees for food, water, and sunlight.

Barbirusa - Indonesia

The corpse flower is the world’s largest flower. It can measure up to 105 centimeters across and weighing up to 7 kilos. It is a rare specimen endemic to the islands of Sumatra and Borneo and is referred to locally as “bunga patma.” For the purpose of pollination, the flower emits a strong odor of rotting flesh to attract insects.

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Babyrousa celebensis - Barbirusas are members of the pig family. Of the three species, the Sulawesi barbirusa is the largest. The name stems from the Indonesian term for “pig-deer.” The males are known for their tusks, extensions of the lower and upper canines. The lower canines grow out and over the upper lip and the upper canines penetrate the snout, curling backwards towards the animal’s skull. Severe habitat loss and poaching have threatened the three species of barbirusa with possible extinction; they are protected by law.

Orangutan - Indonesia

Pongo pygmaeus - About 400,000 years ago, a split occurred within the sole species of orangutan resulting in the current three species and three sub-species within Pongo pygmaeus. The Bornean, Sumatran, and Tapanuli orangutans are the exclusive primates native to Asia. The Bornean orangutan is endemic to the island of Borneo, an island shared by Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia. The three species of orangutan are facing extinction resulting from habitat loss and the bushmeat trade.

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In terms of flora and fauna diversity, Indonesia ranks second in the world; Brazil is first. Indonesia contains some of the rarest plant and animal life on earth; Rafflesia arnoldii and Varanus komodoensis, the Komodo dragon. The country contains more than 17,000 islands, Sumatra being the largest at 473,000 square kilometers. Over 300 ethnic groups, speaking 700 indigenous languages, combine to make Indonesia the world’s 15th and 4th largest country in area and population respectively.

Black-spotted Puffer Fish - Japan

Japan uses four styles of writing: Romaji, Kanji, Katakana, and Hiragana. Romaji represents Latin scripted letters. The Kanji system uses the borrowed logographics of the Chinese characters. Katakana and Hiragana styles are syllabic scripts using kanas to represent individual sounds in the Japanese language.

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Arothron nigropunctatos - The black-spotted puffer fish, also known as the dog-faced puffer, has small fins, a feature marking it as a slow moving fish. The puffer has two methods of defense against predators; it can swallow large amounts of water or air to inflate its body into a balloon to present a menacing appearance and create more surface area than the potential predator’s mouth can possibly fit. The puffer fish also secretes a neurotoxin to keep other fish at bay. Some species have sharp spines on the body as a third line of defense.

Japanese Wire Weed - Japan

Sargassum muticum - Japanese wire weed is a fast growing seaweed preferring sheltered rocky areas. It attaches itself through a holdfast, a root-like structure allowing aquatic sessile organisms to anchor themselves into mud, sand or rocks. The seaweed has been distributed far beyond the shores of Japan, usually by accident. When Japanese oysters were imported into the Western Pacific coastal areas during the early 1940’s for the purpose of farming, the wire weed came along.

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Japan is located along the Pacific Rim of Fire, an area of extreme seismic and volcanic activity. There are more than 1,500 tremors recorded in Japan annually. Most are mild and cause no damage, but Japan has suffered a high proportion of devastating earthquakes. In 1923, the Kantō plain was struck by a massive earthquake causing the death of over 150,000 people. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake measured a devastating 9.0 on the Richter scale; it caused extensive damage and killed 15,000 people.

Skip Jack Tuna - Kiribati

Kiribati is the only country in the world stretching long and far enough to fall into the world’s four hemispheres; north, south, east, and west. Kiribati’s island of Banaba was one of the three Pacific islands known as the “Great” phosphate rock islands; the others were Makatea Island of the French Polynesia chain and Nauru.

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Katsuwonus pelamis - The skip jack tuna is one of fifteen species of the Thunnini tribe and the primary tuna used as a source of food for human consumption. The world wide demand places the skip jack second on the list of harvested fish; it is exceeded only by the Peruvian anchoveta. Testing for contamination has found over 90% of the skip jack population tainted with the toxic compound tributyltin, TBT. This compound has leached into the skip jack’s ecosystem through the paint used on the hulls of ships for anti-fouling purposes.

Kiribati Reed Warbler - Kiribati

Acrocephalus aequinoctialis - Known locally as the bokikokiko, the Kiritimati reed warbler is found only on Kiritimati and Teraina Island. The bokikokiko is larger than most warblers, but shares the common trait of being highly vocal and having a primary diet of insects. Breeding pairs are monogamous and maintain a territory of about 2 hectares. A typical clutch contains four eggs and the nesting site is usually located just below the canopy of an octopus bush, a small shrub of about 3 meters.

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Kiritimati, also known as Christmas Island, is the world’s largest atoll. It has a land area of 388 square kilometers and comprises 70% of Kiribati’s total land area. Kiritimati has been set aside as a wildlife sanctuary. Banaba is the only true island in Kiribati; the others are coral atolls. Banaba had been mined extensively for its rich deposits of phosphate, an ingredient used in manufacturing fertilizer. The mining operations began in 1900, ended in 1979, and resulted in stripping away almost 90% of the island.

Tiger Shark - Marshall Islands

The Bikini Atoll, meaning “place of coconuts,” has been the site of 23 atomic detonations. The atomic testing began on July 1, 1946, and lasted through 1958. The original 157 Bikinians were relocated to neighboring islands. The lingering radiation from these atomic tests has made the Bikini Atoll unsuitable for general habitation.

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Galeocerdo cuvier - The tiger shark, named for the prominent stripes covering the body, is a solitary animal found in the warm coastal waters of the world. The tiger shark is known as an apex predator, an animal having no other animal above it in the food chain. The threats facing the tiger shark are over-fishing and the practice of “finning,” removing the fins and throwing the shark back into the water. Without fins, the shark is unable to swim with the necessary speed for water to pass effectively through the gills; the shark dies by suffocation.

Stick Charts - Marshall Islands

Early Polynesian explorers were skilled mariners able to confidently sail the Pacific by using simple devices known as stick charts. Made from the fronds of palm trees, the stick charts represented ocean swell patterns and the location of known islands. Conventional maps and charts are taken on board the vessel, but stick charts were left behind. The intended course was studied and memorized. The knowledge of making and using stick charts has been lost to modern navigational devices.

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The Marshall Islands were settled by Polynesian people more than 3,000 years ago. In 1526, Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar claimed the area for Spain. Although it had residual claim, Spain did little to establish an official administrative government. The islands passed to Germany in 1885, and following World War I, were placed under a Japanese mandate. The United States took control after World War II. The Marshall Islands became independent in 1979, but retains close ties with the United States.

Giant Oceanic Ray - Micronesia

The Federated States of Micronesia is a collection of over 600 islands spread across 2,900 kilometers of the Pacific Ocean. The total land area consists of slightly more than 700 square kilometers. The country is divided into four states: Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap. Pohnpei is the largest in area and population.

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Manta birostris - The giant oceanic ray, measuring up to 9 meters in width and weighing 1,350 kilos, is the largest of the rays. It has huge pectoral fins, yet a relative short tail and dorsal fin. Similar to most giants of the ocean, the ray feeds mainly on tiny planktonic creatures. The krill, shrimp, and crabs are filtered from the water after passing through a specialized structure in the animal’s mouth. The oceanic ray usually bears one offspring after a 12 month gestation period. The pup is hatched inside the female and born fully developed.