The Americas

The Americas - Introduction

There is much evidence to prove other seafaring explorers had landed on the shores of the Americas long before Cristóbal Colón. Those who had come before him lacked either ambition, ability or imagination to take full advantage of the importance of their voyage and were tossed to the historical sidelines. The Europeans assumed the Americas were an undeveloped wasteland filled with savages. The people of the Americas had crossed over the Bering Land Bridge almost 20,000 years ago. They came in several waves and when they settled themselves into their new surroundings, they began to develop cultures as refined as any of those in Europe and they built cities and empires rivaling any of those in Europe. The assumptions of savages was false and became the foundation for the greatest displacement and subjugation of human beings ever witnessed.

Pineapple - Antigua and Barbuda

In 1695, the Santiago da Cullerin was smashed against the coral reefs near the Barbuda coast. The ship, carrying 13,000 silver pesos, prompted the locals into a lucrative salvage effort. Salvaging ships unable to steer clear of the dangerous coral reefs had at one time provided a source of income to the local islanders.

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Ananas comosus - The pineapple is native to South America. It is now widely distributed throughout the tropics and can be grown in greenhouse settings in the temperate zones. It is one of over 3,100 species in the Bromeliaceae family, most being native to the tropical regions of the Americas. The fruit is a multiple organ, formed by the coalescence of the fruits of a hundred or more individual flowers. The time period from planting to maturity may take as long as 15 to 20 months.

Tillandsia Bulbosa - Antigua and Barbuda

Tillandsia bulbosa - The leaves and bulbous base of Tillandsia bulbosa give it a succulent texture and appearance, but it is in the Bromeliaceae family, a family commonly referred to as “air” plants. Tillandsia bulbosa is an epiphyte, a plant with the ability to form a non-parasitic relationship with another plant. It will use the trunk or branch of a host for support, but will derive the essentials; water and nutrients, from the air. The roots do absorb some nutrients, but are primarily used for clinging to the host.

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Archaeological evidence suggests the islands of Antigua and Barbuda having been inhabited as early as 3100 BC. The first inhabitants were the Ciboney people, followed by the Arawaks, who were then displaced by the Caribs. The first European wave in colonizing the Americas bypassed Antigua and Barbuda because of the fierce Carib resistance. England began to colonize the two islands in 1632, and retained control until 1981, when Antigua and Barbuda became independent.

Smilodon Populator - Argentina

The South American pampa stretches from the Andean foothills to the Atlantic coast. Once an ancient seabed, it is about 750,000 square kilometers in size. The western pampa is covered in shingle and sand, and the eastern half, by deposits of estuary silt washed down from the highlands during periods of massive floods.

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Smilodon populator - Having evolved in North America, Smilodon populator migrated to South America during the late Pleistocene epoch. This was the largest cat of the sabertooth species and weighed an average of 250 kilos, making it one of the largest felids; the tiger, at 300 kilos, currently ranks as the biggest cat. High shoulders and a sloped back gave it the appearance of a modern hyena. These cats became extinct about 10,000 years ago, a time period coinciding with the decline of the large herbivores throughout the Americas.

Cockspur Coral Tree - Argentina

Erythrina crista-galli - The cockspur coral tree is native to Argentina, Southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, but can be found world wide. Its bright red flowers make it a desirable ornamental plant. The cockspur is known as “ceibo” in Spanish and “corticeira” in Portuguese. The tree is small, growing 5 to 8 meters in height and having a gnarled trunk with a diameter of 50 centimeters. In natural settings, it is often found along the banks of rivers and streams. The seeds are poisonous if ingested.

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Argentina, being a large country, had many indigenous people prior to the arrival of Europeans. The Diaguita, Guaraní, Kolla, Mapuche, Mocoví, Toba, and Wichí peoples are the more well-known of a list recognizing 35 individual groups. These groups consisted of basic and advanced hunter-gathers, successful farmers leading sedentary lives, or those flourishing by establishing thriving trading centers. Currently, only 1.5% of Argentina’s population ascribes themselves as Native American.

Cats of the Americas

There are currently seven species of large bodied cats in existence: the lion, leopard, tiger, jaguar, snow leopard, puma, and the cheetah. These seven cat species have had their original range limited by human encroachment and now face an uncertain future in their ability to survive.

The extinctions of the late Tertiary period eliminated three major groups of felids: metailurines, homotherines, and smilodontines. During the Pleistocene period an additional five species of the Felini tribe were lost to extinction. The total lost is about thirty species and represents four fifths of the larger cats known and identified over the last 10 to 12 million years. Extinctions are a normal process in the overall biological process and many factors can contribute to the demise of a species. Typical causes are loss of habitat, loss of food sources, or a severe and sudden change in climatic cycles, denying the animal sufficient time for an evolutionary adjustment. The loss of thirty species of felines over such a short period is a considerable tragedy and should be cause for providing a better understanding and strict protection for the seven species still in existence.

The felines depicted are the American cheetah, classified as Miracinonyx trumani, Barbourofelis fricki, and the American saber-toothed lion, classified as Smilodon fatalis.ture in their ability to survive.

Nassau Grouper - Bahamas

The Bahamas Archipelago consists of more than 3,000 islands. San Salvador Island, once called Watling’s Island, named after a famous buccaneer, is the reputed site of Cristóbal Colón first landfall upon reaching the Americas on October 12, 1492. The native Lucayons referred to their island as Guanahani.

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Epinephelus striatus - The Nassau grouper is the largest fish of the coral reef environment. The tropical regions of the western Atlantic are their preferred habitat. It can grow up to 1 meter in length and weigh as much as 25 kilos. As its name implies, the Nassau grouper forms large spawning groups. This behavior of grouping in large schools has made this species vulnerable to over-fishing. The large mouth of the grouper is used as a suction device to “inhale” the smaller prey animals sharing the coral reef with the grouper.

American Flamingo - Bahamas

Phoenicopterus ruber - There are six living species of flamingos; two are native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and four are native to the Americas. The one feature common to flamingos, is their specially adapted bill. It is lined with fine straining plates called lamellae. Flamingos feed in shallow waters by dipping their bill into the water and sweeping it from side to side as they are pulling in various small invertebrates. The flamingo’s large fleshy tongue is then used as a press to expel the water.

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When Cristóbal Colón arrived in the Americas, his first landfall was in the Bahamas. Though the islands were claimed for Spain, the Spanish expressed no interest in colonizing the islands. The British were not as reluctant and took charge in 1717. King George I appointed Woodes Rogers, an English sea captain, as governor of the Bahamas with the hopes he would clear the area of pirates. Rogers, having been a pirate, was successful. The Bahamas were retained as a British colony until 1973.

Dwarf-keeled Tegus - Barbados

Barbados, meaning “bearded men,” was named by Portugese sailors arriving on the islands during the early 1600’s. The lush tropical trees gave the island a “bearded” appearance. Britain gained control of Barbados in 1627 and held the area until Barbados became independent in 1966.

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Kentropyx borckianus - The Barbados dwarf-keeled tegus is an unusual animal. It is an animal able to reproduce through a process known as parthenogenesis. There are no males existing within this species; each individual is a female. Parthenogenesis is of Greek origin and translates as “virgin birth.” This form of reproduction does not require a male for the fertilization of the embryo. It is a common trait found in plant reproduction and there are some invertebrate using the same process, but it is rarely found in vertebrates.

Pride of Barbados - Barbados

Caesalpinia pulcherrima - The pride of Barbados is a large evergreen shrub growing, on average, to 4 meters in height. This plant puts out striking flowers of red, yellow or orange petals. The fruit is contained in a long greenish pod. Upon maturity, the pod turns brown and bursts open for seed dispersal. Each pod contains 5 or 6 seeds and they are poisonous. The pride of Barbados is native to the West Indies and Mexico, but is cultivated throughout the world as an ornamental plant.

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In 1492, the Spanish became the first Europeans to visit Barbados. They were followed by the Portuguese who arrived in 1536. Both groups claimed the island for their respective country, but neither made any efforts to establish a settlement on Barbados. William Courten, an English merchant and trader, was granted letters-patent to Barbados in 1627 and began sending colonists to the island for the purpose of setting up tobacco plantations. England held Barbados until it became independent in 1966.

Queen Angelfish - Belize

The Belize Barrier Reef is a 190 kilometer long coral reef and part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. This series of coral reefs begins off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula and winds its way to Honduras. It is the second largest coral reef system in the world; Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the largest.

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Holacanthus ciliaris - The queen angelfish inhabits the coral reefs growing in shallow waters. The adults prefer feeding on sponges, algae, and tunicates; the juveniles serve a useful role as cleaners by feeding on the parasites found on larger fish. The body of the queen angelfish is extremely flat and grows to lengths of about 45 centimeters; males are slightly larger than females. Adults usually travel in pairs, suggesting monogamous bonding, but there is also evidence of male angelfish collecting harems of 4 to 5 females.

Bullhorn Acacia - Belize

Vachellia cornigera - The name for the bullhorn acacia tree is derived from the bull shaped hollow thorns at the base of the leaves. The plant has a symbiotic relationship with the pseudomyrmex ant. The bullhorn lacks the bitter alkaloid found in most acacia trees to deter insects and grazers. The ants harvest the leaf tips and eat the nectar flowing from the base of the leaf petioles. The plant is protected from other insects and animals by the ants residing in the hollow thorns.

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Following the decline and fall of the Maya civilization, Belize, along with most of the Americas, fell to Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. British settlers, many being active or former pirates, were granted permission by the Spanish Crown to settle and log Belize, having agreed to forsake piracy. With the end of Spanish rule in Central America, the colony was formally ceded to Britain in 1836 and became British Honduras. In 1981, the colony was granted independence and renamed Belize.

Llama - Bolivia

At 3,810 meters above sea level, Lake Titicaca is the world’s highest navigable lake. Venezuela’s Lake Maracaibo is the largest lake in South America, but Lake Titicaca, with a surface area of 8,300 square kilometers ranks as the second largest lake. More than 25 rivers and streams feed the cold waters of Lake Titicaca.

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Lama glama - The llama, pronounced "yama," the alpaca, the vicuña, and the guañaco are members of the camel family. The llama's agility and coarse coat make it well suited for the mountains of South America. Llamas have been used as a pack animal in South America since pre-Columbian times. Llamas originated in North America and migrated into South America three million years ago. The Camelidae family became extinct throughout North America during the last ice age, approximately 11,000 years ago.

Daceton Armigerum - Bolivia

Daceton armigerum - Daceton armigerum is a widely distributed arboreal ant species endemic to South America. The colonies are polygynic, containing multiple queens and are polydomous, consisting of several nests within one colony. An average colony contains as many as one million individuals. Bore holes created by beetles or other insects along the trunk or branches of a tree become ideal nesting sites. Forging for food is usually limited to capturing insects venturing onto the host tree.

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The Aymara people had established Tiwanaku, a thriving civilization centered in the area of Lake Titicaca; the Spanish called it Tiahuanaco. This state flourished for 500 years and extended its influence into Southern Peru, Northern Chile, and Argentina. Tiwanaku grew into a powerful state through the use of diplomatic and trade agreements as opposed to brute force. Tiwanaku was replaced as a regional power beginning in 1438, through the rapid ascent of the Kingdom of Cusco; the Incas.

Red-eye Piranha - Brazil

The Amazon River is fed by the largest drainage basin in the world, over 7 million square kilometers. The discharge rate averages over 200,000 cubic meters per second. The volume of the discharge alters the salt content and color of the Atlantic Ocean for a distance of 320 kilometers from the mouth of the Amazon River.

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Serrasalmus rhombeus - Of the several species of piranha, or caribe as they are known in Venezuela, only four are considered dangerous. The carnivorous species have wedge shaped teeth to allow them to cut flesh from their prey, consisting primarily of smaller fish. The red-eye piranha ranges in length from 25 to 41 centimeters and is found throughout Amazonia. Although there have been incidents of piranha attacking people, reports of frenzied attacks on humans, cattle or small mammals are widely exaggerated..

Christmas Cactus - Brazil

Schlumbergera truncata - When cultivated as a house plant, it is referred to as a “Christmas cactus.” Schlumbergera consists of six species of plants endemic to Southeastern Brazil. These plants are leafless; the green stems serve as the source of the photosynthesis process. Schlumbergeras are either epiphytic, living with a tree in a nonparasitic relationship or epilithic, living in a rocky crevice. In both cases it derives its nutrients from the air or decaying matter falling within its space.

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The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in June of 1494 and divided the newly discovered lands of the Americas between Portugal and Spain. The dividing line fell 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This was the halfway point between the Cape Verde Islands, already belonged to Portugal, and the territory Cristóbal Colón had claimed for Spain on his first voyage. The dividing line was not clearly defined nor strictly enforced; the current border of Brazil exceeds the limits of the treaty considerably.

Canada Goose - Canada

Canada has more inland water systems than any other country. Canada’s Mackenzie River ranks as the 12th longest river in the world. Of the fifteen largest lakes, Great Bear, Great Slave, and Winnipeg are in Canada, four others are shared with the United States: Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and Superior.

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Branta canadensis - In the second year of life, a Canada goose will choose a permanent mate; Canada geese are monogamous and remain together for life. A female will typically lay a clutch of about five eggs. Both parents tend to the nest; the female dedicating herself to the incubation process and the male will standby to offer protection or help maintain the nest. The incubation period lasts from 24 to 28 days. Once hatched, the goslings are capable of walking, swimming, and fending for themselves in finding food.

Sugar Maple - Canada

Acer saccharum - The sugar maple is one of several maple species found worldwide. It is a slow growing tree, attaining a height of 40 meters at maturity. The maple is a hardy and tolerant tree, but recent declines in acreage is a direct result of increased acid precipitation and air pollution in the northeastern industrial corridor. Maple syrup is derived from the xylem of the sugar maple tree. Xylem is the vascular tissue of the sugar maple and allows the tree to transport water from the roots to the leaves.

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The first European settlement of Canada occurred in 1000 AD; Norsemen built a small colony at L'Anse aux Meadows. The settlement did not survive and Europeans remained absent from Canada until John Cabot’s exploration of 1497; he claimed his findings for England. Jacques Cartier arrived in 1534 and claimed the area along the Saint Lawrence River for France. This pitted England against France in several wars for control of Canada; England emerged as the victor during the Seven Years’ War.

The Inuit

The Inuit people migrated and inhabited the various regions of the Arctic circle extending from Alaska to Greenland. They are the most recent arrivals in the Americas prior to the European crossing of the Atlantic. Scientific evidence points to an arrival time from Siberia and their expansion out of Western Alaska at about 1000 AD. The Inuit have adapted themselves well to their harsh and isolated environment, a factor in helping them to remain somewhat intact as a cultural group. Inuit society was based strictly on hunting and was highly mobile as the nomadic communities followed the seasonal migration of the seals, whales, and caribou. They were able to build comfortable living quarters made of snow and ice. These igloos were constructed in various sizes to serve as either temporary hunting shelters, family quarters or as community dwellings able to accommodate twenty people.